Indian Economy - A Review

 The Indian economy is on the cusp of significant growth, with projections indicating a rate of over 7% in the coming years. The Government of India released a report titled "Indian Economy - A Review" instead of presenting the Economic Survey ahead of the upcoming elections shows the government's commitment to transparency and accountability. The report predicts that India will become a $5 trillion economy in the next three years and aims for $7 trillion by 2030. The country has implemented significant reforms, such as the Goods and Services Tax, Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, and infrastructure building, which have driven domestic consumption and led to a 7%-plus growth rate in the last three years. The report calls this journey from fragility to stability and strength. India's economy is well-positioned for a bright future, and the government's commitment to sustainable growth and economic development is commendable. Despite concerns about global supply chains, India is managing to balance its economic growth and energy transition more effectively than other nations. The country's unwavering dedication to ensuring steady economic growth is generating resources for investment needed for climate change adaptation, building resilience, and mitigating emissions. The report's findings indicate that India is moving in the right direction and that the country's future is bright.

This report titled "Indian Economy - A Review" emphasizes that inclusive development will improve the financial health of Indian households. India's youth are optimistic about the future, and the government has successfully managed oil prices over the last two years. The country is moving in the right direction, and there is a sense of momentum that is driving the economy forward.

The report provides an overview of the economy ahead of the interim Budget, highlighting areas of growth such as hyper-globalisation, artificial intelligence, and the energy transition challenge. The government remains committed to pursuing on-shoring, despite the likelihood that alternative supply chain solutions may take some time to emerge. India is managing the balance between economic growth and energy transition more effectively than other nations, with installed non-fossil fuel-based power generation capacity running ahead of targets. The country's dedication to ensuring steady economic growth is generating resources for investment needed for climate change adaptation, building resilience, and mitigating emissions.

Democracy and Development: A Complex Relationship

 

Introduction

 Democracy and development are two interconnected concepts that have been discussed extensively in political science and economic literature and been considered two sides of the same coin. Democracy refers to a political system where the power to make political decisions is vested in the people through free and fair elections. On the other hand, development encompasses the complex process of economic, social, and political advancement that results in improvements in the well-being of individuals and societies. In other words, democracy refers to a political system that grants power to the people, development encompasses various economic, social, and cultural advancements The relationship between democracy and development is a contentious topic, with scholars providing various perspectives and arguments on the impact of democracy on development outcomes.  At the heart of democracy lies the fundamental principle of popular sovereignty. Under this principle, citizens possess the power to shape the policies and decisions that affect their lives. This empowerment of individuals nurtures a sense of ownership and encourages active participation in societal affairs. Consequently, democracy paves the way for inclusive governance, where diverse voices are heard, leading to more equitable and accountable systems. This inclusivity, in turn, spurs development as it allows for a broader pool of ideas, perspectives, and expertise to be tapped into

 Historical Context and Key Figures

The historical context of democracy and development reveals a complex relationship shaped by various events and influential individuals. One key figure in this regard is Adam Smith, an 18th-century economist and philosopher whose work on capitalism and the market economy influenced the modern notion of development. Smith argued that individual freedom and a decentralized market system are essential for economic development and wealth creation. Another influential thinker in the field of democracy and development is Karl Marx. While Marx was critical of capitalism, he advocated for a communist system where the workers controlled the means of production. Marx's ideas sparked revolutions and inspired socialist movements worldwide, leading to the establishment of various communist regimes during the 20th century. In terms of democracy, the French Revolution of 1789 played a pivotal role in shaping the modern democratic ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The American Revolution, with its emphasis on individual rights and democratic governance, also contributed to the development of democratic principles.

 Impact of Democracy on Development

The impact of democracy on development is a complex and nuanced topic with both positive and negative aspects. Proponents of democracy argue that democratic governance fosters economic development by promoting transparency, accountability, and the rule of law. They contend that democratic countries are more likely to attract foreign investment, experience lower levels of corruption, and have higher economic growth rates. Case studies of countries like South Korea and Taiwan have demonstrated how the transition to democracy coincided with significant economic development. These countries experienced rapid industrialization and improvements in living standards after the establishment of democratic governments. Similarly, India, the world's largest democracy, has achieved remarkable economic growth in recent decades. However, there are also arguments against the direct impact of democracy on development. Critics contend that economic development can occur under autocratic regimes as well, citing examples like China or Singapore. These countries have achieved impressive economic growth despite lacking democratic governance. They argue that stable autocracies can implement long-term development strategies without the constraints of political rivalries and policy gridlock. Democracy contributes to social development by promoting equality, social justice, and inclusivity. Democracies tend to invest in education, healthcare, and social welfare programs, recognizing that human development is a prerequisite for overall progress. Equitable societies, where everyone has access to quality education and healthcare, provide the necessary conditions for college undergraduates to thrive and reach their full potential. In this regard, the interplay between democracy and development becomes more apparent as democracy nurtures an environment that supports the personal and professional growth of college undergraduates. It is crucial to note that while democracy unquestionably contributes to development, the reverse is also true. Development, particularly in the economic sphere, can bolster democracy by reducing poverty, enhancing social inclusivity, and broadening the middle class. A prosperous society, where people can lead dignified lives, is more likely to demand greater political participation and accountability from their leaders. As college undergraduates participate in their local communities and witness the transformative power of development, they become more cognizant of the importance of democratic principles. In conclusion, democracy and development share a symbiotic relationship that is of utmost importance at the college undergraduate level. Democracy empowers individuals, promotes inclusive governance, and fosters social and economic progress. At the same time, development nurtures the conditions necessary for democracy to flourish. As college undergraduates, we must recognize and appreciate the significance of this dynamic interplay. It is our responsibility to champion democratic values and actively contribute to the development of our societies, fostering a brighter future for all. Democratic institutions also play a vital role in promoting economic development. Transparency, accountability, and the rule of law, inherent in democratic systems, create favorable conditions for trade, investment, and economic growth. When institutions are accountable to the people, corruption is minimized, and resources are allocated more efficiently. This leads to greater economic opportunities and improved living standards. College undergraduates, as future entrepreneurs, policymakers, and professionals, benefit greatly from this strengthened economic foundation provided by democracy. The availability of resources and opportunities enables them to better pursue their educational and career aspirations.

 Influential Individuals and Perspectives

Analyzing influential individuals who have contributed to the field of democracy and development provides valuable insights into the various perspectives on this topic. One notable figure is Amartya Sen, a Nobel laureate economist who has extensively studied the relationship between democracy, development, and human capabilities. Sen argues that democracy, through its emphasis on political participation and freedom of expression, plays a crucial role in fostering human development.

Another influential scholar in this field is Francis Fukuyama, who famously argued in his book "The End of History and the Last Man" that the widespread adoption of democracy would lead to the end of ideological conflicts. Fukuyama believed that democracy is the final form of human government, providing the best conditions for individual flourishing and societal progress.

On the other hand, critics like Robert Dahl have provided alternative perspectives on democracy, focusing on the quality and depth of democratic institutions. Dahl argued that mere procedural democracy, characterized by free and fair elections, is insufficient for sustainable development. He emphasized the importance of institutional effectiveness, civil liberties, and social justice in ensuring democratic development.

 Conclusion

Democracy and development have a complex relationship that is influenced by historical events, key figures, and various perspectives. While proponents argue that democracy promotes development through transparency and accountability, critics highlight examples where autocracies have achieved economic growth. Influential individuals like Amartya Sen and Francis Fukuyama have contributed valuable insights to the field, but debates continue regarding the quality and effectiveness of democratic institutions. As we look towards the future, the interplay between democracy and development will likely remain a central concern. Striking a balance between democratic governance and sustainable development will be crucial in addressing the challenges of the 21st century.

Crypto Currency and its Impact on Economy

 

Introduction

Cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual form of currency that uses cryptography for secure financial transactions, control the creation of additional units, and verify the transfer of assets. Since the creation of Bitcoin in 2009, cryptocurrencies have captured the imagination of enthusiasts, investors, and governments worldwide. This essay aims to explore the historical context of cryptocurrencies, examine their impact on the economy, identify key figures in the field, and provide a well-reasoned analysis of the positive and negative aspects. Furthermore, potential future developments related to the impact of cryptocurrency on the economy will be discussed.

 Historical Context and Key Figures

 Cryptocurrency's historical context can be traced back to the financial crisis of 2008. Amidst global economic turmoil, an anonymous figure or group using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto introduced Bitcoin, the first cryptocurrency based on blockchain technology. Nakamoto's design integrated the principles of decentralization, transparency, and security, challenging traditional financial systems.

 The impact of cryptocurrencies on the economy became evident as Bitcoin gained popularity. As more individuals embraced digital currencies, the concept of decentralized finance started to flourish. However, it wasn't until 2017 that cryptocurrencies experienced an unprecedented surge in value, leading to a widespread interest and investment. This period, known as the "crypto boom," contributed to the expansion of the cryptocurrency market and its integration into various sectors of the economy.

 Identifying influential individuals who have contributed to the field of cryptocurrency is crucial to understanding its impact on the economy. Among these figures, three noteworthy individuals stand out: Satoshi Nakamoto, Vitalik Buterin, and Brian Armstrong.

 Satoshi Nakamoto: The anonymous creator of Bitcoin, Nakamoto's vision and technical design paved the way for the cryptocurrency revolution. His groundbreaking white paper on Bitcoin introduced a decentralized peer-to-peer electronic cash system, challenging centralized financial institutions.

 Vitalik Buterin: Buterin is the founder of Ethereum, the second-largest cryptocurrency by market capitalization. He expanded the concept of blockchain technology to support applications, enabling the development of smart contracts and decentralized applications. Ethereum's impact on the economy lies in its ability to facilitate the creation of new cryptocurrencies and innovative projects.

 Brian Armstrong: As the co-founder and CEO of Coinbase, Armstrong played a pivotal role in popularizing cryptocurrency trading. Coinbase, one of the world's largest cryptocurrency exchanges, allowed millions of individuals to buy and sell cryptocurrencies easily, contributing to the mainstream acceptance and adoption.

Impact on the Economy

 Positive Aspects:

1. Financial Inclusion: Cryptocurrencies allow individuals without access to traditional banking systems to participate in the economy, enabling financial inclusion and reducing the global unbanked population.

2. Security and Privacy: Cryptocurrencies provide secure, encrypted transactions, protecting users' privacy and sensitive financial information.

3. Faster Transactions: Cryptocurrency transactions often bypass the need for intermediaries, resulting in quicker and more efficient cross-border payments, benefiting businesses and individuals alike.

4. Decentralization: Cryptocurrencies operate on a decentralized network, reducing the power and control of centralized authorities, such as governments and banks. This fosters trust and transparency in financial transactions.

 Negative Aspects:

1. Volatility: The high price volatility of cryptocurrencies poses risks for investors and can lead to market instability. Sudden price fluctuations can impact investments, trade, and the overall economy.

2. Regulatory Challenges: The decentralized nature of cryptocurrencies presents challenges for governments looking to regulate and control their use. Regulations are necessary to prevent illicit activities, money laundering, and tax evasion.

3. Energy Consumption: The mining process, essential for the creation and verification of cryptocurrency transactions, requires substantial amounts of energy. The environmental impact of cryptocurrency mining needs to be addressed to ensure sustainability.

4. Lack of Consumer Protection: Unlike traditional financial institutions, the cryptocurrency ecosystem does not have adequate consumer protection measures in place, leaving users vulnerable to fraud, scams, and hacking.

 Future Developments and Perspectives

 The future of cryptocurrency and its impact on the economy remains a topic of speculation and debate. Several potential developments may shape this landscape:

 1. Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs): Governments and central banks are exploring the development of CBDCs, which are state-backed digital currencies. CBDCs aim to combine the benefits of cryptocurrencies, such as fast transactions and financial inclusion, with the stability and regulation of traditional currency systems.

 2. Blockchain Integration: Industries, such as supply chain management, real estate, and healthcare, are increasingly embracing blockchain technology to enhance transparency, security, and efficiency. Cryptocurrencies may become an integral part of these ecosystems, further influencing the economy.

 3. Increased Regulation: Governments worldwide are taking steps to regulate cryptocurrencies, aiming to protect consumers, prevent illicit activities, and maintain financial stability. Striking the right balance between regulation and fostering innovation remains a complex challenge.

 Conclusion

 Cryptocurrency has undoubtedly made a significant impact on the economy, revolutionizing financial transactions and challenging traditional systems. As we have explored, historical context, influential figures, and perspectives on the positive and negative aspects of cryptocurrency highlight its multifaceted nature. Striking a balance between innovation, regulation, and addressing challenges will be crucial to harnessing the potential benefits of cryptocurrencies while mitigating risks. The future of cryptocurrency and its impact on the economy will undoubtedly continue to evolve, shaping the way we perceive and interact with financial systems globally.

Foundation of Indian Economy

 

Discussion and Analysis of the Indian economy is a topic of great interest and concern, given the country's status as one of the world's largest and fastest-growing economies. In recent years, India has experienced a mix of challenges and opportunities that have shaped its economic landscape. One of the key issues affecting the Indian economy is the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic has had a significant effect on various sectors, leading to disruptions in supply chains, reduced consumer demand, and widespread job losses. The government's response to the pandemic, including lockdown measures and economic stimulus packages, has played a crucial role in mitigating the adverse effects on the economy.

 India's GDP growth has also been a matter of concern. The country witnessed a significant slowdown in economic growth even before the pandemic, and the subsequent impact of COVID-19 further exacerbated this trend. While there have been signs of recovery, the pace of economic growth remains a critical area of focus for policymakers and economists. Another important aspect of the Indian economy is the state of its financial sector. The banking sector has faced challenges related to non-performing assets (NPAs) and liquidity issues, which have raised questions about financial stability and the effectiveness of regulatory mechanisms. Efforts to address these issues, including recapitalization of banks and reforms in the financial sector, are essential for restoring confidence and promoting sustainable growth.

In the segment of Balance of Trade, India's external trade dynamics have been influenced by global trends, trade tensions, and shifts in geopolitical dynamics. The country's trade deficit, export competitiveness, and foreign exchange reserves are all factors that contribute to the overall health of the economy and its integration into the global market. 

On a positive note, India has continued to make strides in areas such as digital innovation, entrepreneurship, and infrastructure development. Initiatives such as "Make in India," digital payment systems, and investment in smart cities reflect the government's efforts to promote economic modernization and create new opportunities for growth. India's demographic dividend, characterized by a large and young population, presents both opportunities and challenges for the economy. Harnessing the potential of this demographic dividend through skill development, job creation, and inclusive growth is crucial for sustaining long-term economic progress. Moreover, the role of technology and innovation in driving economic progress cannot be overlooked. India's burgeoning technology sector, including software services, IT outsourcing, and startups, has contributed significantly to economic growth and global competitiveness. Continued investment in research and development, digital infrastructure, and fostering a culture of innovation will be instrumental in shaping India's future economic trajectory.

 Additionally, the Indian economy has been grappling with issues related to agricultural reforms, labor market dynamics, and environmental sustainability. The agriculture sector, which employs a significant portion of the population, has faced challenges such as low productivity, fragmented land holdings, and inadequate infrastructure. Reforms aimed at modernizing agriculture, enhancing market access for farmers, and promoting Agri-tech innovations are crucial for transforming this sector and improving rural livelihoods. Similarly the labor market in India has been characterized by informal employment, underemployment, and skill-mismatch. Addressing these issues through initiatives focused on skill development, job creation in emerging sectors, and social security measures is essential for promoting inclusive growth and reducing income inequality.

Environmental sustainability is another critical area that requires attention. India faces challenges related to air and water pollution, deforestation, and climate change impacts. Sustainable development practices, investments in renewable energy, and conservation efforts are imperative for ensuring a healthy environment and sustainable economic growth in the long run. Lastly, the role of governance, transparency, and rule of law is fundamental for creating an enabling environment for economic growth. Strengthening institutions, promoting ease of doing business, and combating corruption are essential for fostering investor confidence and sustainable economic development.

 In conclusion, the current state of the Indian economy is marked by a complex interplay of domestic and global factors. While challenges exist, there are also opportunities for India to leverage its strengths and address areas that require attention. A concerted effort from policymakers, businesses, and society at large is essential for navigating the current economic landscape and positioning India for sustainable and inclusive growth in the future. Indian economy reflects a mix of challenges and opportunities across various sectors. Addressing these issues through comprehensive policy measures, strategic investments, and inclusive development initiatives will be crucial for realizing India's economic potential and improving the well-being of its citizens.

 

Aspiring for Cultural Future- Bharat vision with ASEAN

India's relations with ASEAN have emerged as the keystone of India’s foreign policy. The partnership emerged from the 'Look East Policy' announced in the early 1990s which led to India becoming ASEAN Sectoral Partner in 1992, Dialogue Partner in 1996 and Summit-level Partner in 2002. The partnership during the 20th anniversary celebrations in New Delhi in 2012 was a natural foundation for the growth of India-ASEAN relations over the past two decades. The eleven countries of ASEAN are Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei, the Philippines and recently added Timor Leste. In Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia or Burma today, many symbolic remnants of Indian influence are evident in their art, culture, and civilization. Throughout the centuries, India has been a source of inspiration for art and architecture in modern times ASEAN

South Asia and Southeast Asia are two different geographical regions. Though geographically they can’t be part of each other. But have a common cultural connection that is not just a communication, but a living link. Buddhism and Ramayana connect with the region. Indonesia, the largest Muslim nation in terms of population, has the most famous Ramayana. The bonds go back to history. In the ongoing summit of ASEAN in Jakarta the Indian Prime Minister also emphasized the cultural bond between India and ASEAN countries “ our history and geography unite India with ASEAN. Along with it our shared value, believe in peace and prosperity and multi polar world also unite us”.

Historical and cultural connections between India and the countries of the current ASEAN group go back at least two thousand years if not earlier. Links have deep foundations and vary from place to place and temporarily. They range from maritime exchanges of history to historical connections from the beginning of the Common Era onwards - the expansion of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam across the Bay of Bengal to a voyage made in the early 20th century by Indian leaders such as Rabindranath Tagore. In addition to these historical links, archeological discipline formed in South and Southeast Asia under British, French and recent Dutch laws and often the military officers involved were common in both regions. As a result of the earliest archaeological excavations, much of the region's history focuses on remnants of such monuments as magnificent temples, magnificent statues, and beautiful Buddhist wonders.

The variety and religions associated with the sacred sites in South Asia are amazing and range from the open-air shrines to beautiful temples, huge stupas and huge mosques. Equally noteworthy is the sanctity given to certain places, which continue to be revered by devotees of different religions. A good example of this is the Ellora site, Aurangabad district in the present state of Maharashtra in India

 The relationship between India and ASEAN based on knowledge of maritime communities from historical and archaeological sources shows that their formation crosses national lines. Therefore, efforts to isolate ourselves from the current borders of the country have little historical support. Similarly, while trade provides an important motivation for maritime travel, it was not the only reason for maritime travel and requires a comprehensive study of maritime activity and maritime networks. And the role of religions, such as Buddhism or Hinduism, in promoting and supporting maritime fishing activities needs to be embraced and embraced. Moreover, to appreciate the cultural exchanges across the Bay of Bengal, it is important to highlight the various communication channels, including oral presentations by priests and pilgrims, wandering storytellers, musicians and entertainers. Only then will a complete understanding of cultural communication between South and Southeast Asia emerge. Most importantly, this deep understanding of the plurality of South and Southeast Asian communities needs to be highlighted in the current context of fragmented and fragmented ownership. This is an issue that has been greatly expanded in the next section, as I suggest changing gears to focus on a research area that has been neglected so far.

India and ASEAN members countries society is based on agriculture. ASEAN's cooperation with India in the field of Agriculture is diverse and includes various sectors such as food security, information and technology exchange, research and development projects, agriculture and forestry related industries, and human resource development. The annual ASEAN-India Ministry Ministers Meeting (AIMMAF) has been formalized and met regularly since 2011. The 2nd Medium Term Plan of Action for the 2016-20 cooperation may be adopted at the 4 AIMMAF to be held in 2017. Various agricultural cooperative activities have been underway since 2011.

India is one of the world's largest film producers. There is a lot of connection to the film I can discuss here. India looks at collaborative film production with ASEAN countries, including developing relevant international skills, that help them improve the quality of film production. Collaborative film production enhanced good relations between ASEAN and India.

We believe that there are many films from India and ASEAN that show Asian values. Our people can learn a lot from film, and it is time for Asia to be proud of its unique values ​​and to be strongly and widely promoted in the world. Therefore, the governments of the ASEAN and Indian countries should distinguish between commercial films and culturally important films, and provide special financial benefits (tax breaks) to eligible films, TV documentaries and online features, etc.

All Southeast Asian countries have been influenced by Indian culture and culture for more than a thousand years. The results of the "ASEAN values" are the basis for the common characteristics of the ASEAN community. When India first participated in ASEAN in 1992, many activities and policies were initiated at the ASEAN and India government levels. The purpose of the partnership was to focus on economic and security. However, India has used the "Cultural Diplomacy under Soft Power" as its policy in relation to other countries including those in Southeast Asia. The social and cultural programs linking ASEAN to India have been promoted and funded by the Government of India for more than 50 years through, for example, bursaries. Southeast Asia tends to look to western and other eastern countries. In fact, many Indians prefer to look west again. Therefore, government policies and people's interests may be incompatible.

There are "3Cs Mantra" (Commerce, Culture and Communication) of the Act East Policy of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, these 3Cs are essential for building human relationships. Communication by all means should be encouraged, especially roads. The governments of India and ASEAN planned further cooperation on road networks. Eco-Tourism, religious tourism and ethnic (cultural) - tourism between India and ASEAN is proposed for a co-operative project. When tourism begins, people will be able to travel and learn and get to know each other. Trade and investment will follow naturally. Other potential cultural collaborations include: films / movies, books, and mapping of Indian easpora in Southeast Asia as well as two challenging proposals including a rice culture consortium and a medical consortium between India and ASEAN in terms of prices. shared Asian culture. In the future, the IT and applications used for these prospects should be developed collaboratively. ASEAN and India should work together to strengthen the region rather than relying on distant western countries. Of course, one aspect of competitiveness but this should be done on behalf of the Indian-ASEAN community, not individual countries. Another feature helps with sharing. In this way our Indian-ASEAN society will become a socially prosperous society as its goal in line with the ASCC Blueprint, 2025. Sustainable relations between India and ASEAN are our goal. Therefore, we must build a 'caring and sharing community' by using our common methods to support our citizens.

Indian religion, political thought, literature, legends, art paintings, and style were deeply entrenched in the local culture as large-scale interactions with Indians settled in the courts of South East Asia took place. Buddhism came to Southeast Asia from India in the 3rd century BCE when Buddhist monks were sent by King Ashok.

The influence of India can be felt in the food and taste of South East Asia. There are many similar spices between Indian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Nearly all people in the Southeast Asian region eat rice and curries like the people of East India who have many common ingredients. Indian herbs have long been used in Southeast Asia and are still used in many lands today. Close contact with the Southeast Asian region is therefore a natural consequence of India and its 'Act East' policy.

 

Conclusion

India and Southeast Asia live in an area that is geographically and culturally divided. The cultural and cultural connections of India and Southeast Asia go back thousands of years. In fact, no other country in South East Asia has such a strong connection with India, religion, language, culture, and civilization. Cultural relationship helps us to understand and deal with short-term challenges. Our leaders recognize the need to deepen ASEAN-India relations, in line with our rich culture. It is also known that there is a need to raise awareness of the relationship between India and ASEAN. India's involvement with the ASEAN countries going forward, social and cultural connections between the two regions can be used effectively to increase cooperation, across economic and political spheres in the areas of education, tourism and human relations.

Understanding Engineering Economics - Engineering and Economics

Engineering Economics is sub discipline of Economics which deals with application of economic theory and principles in the engineering decision making. Main subject matter of Engineering Economics is Interests and time value of money, cash flow statement, depreciation, break even analysis etc.

Introduction

Engineering is defined by ABET (Accreditation for Engineering and Technology) as the profession in which the knowledge gained in physics, chemistry, life sciences, and mathematics is applied to make products in large scale that increase the prosperity of man. Economy consists of the sum total of all income from goods produced and services offered in a state or nation. It deals with the interactions between people and wealth. According to Oxford advanced learners English dictionary, an Engineer is a person whose job involves designing and building engines, machines, roads, bridges, etc or a person who is trained to repair and control engines. Economics can be defined in many ways Economics is the human Science which studies the relationship between scarce resources and their various uses which compete for these resources.

Economics is important part of engineering Job 

Engineers must translate idea and invention into the system for betterment of mankind 

Idea need to make sense economically 

Engineers need to control system to achieve goal within bounds of limited resources

Most of the major issues that face the country and the world, such as climate change, water availability, poverty, unemployment's and energy security, need engineers to fix them

Sustainable economic development is the challenge of meeting human needs for natural resources, induce trials products, energy, food transportation, shelter and effective waste management  

More Over

Technically literate businesspeople (engineers, technologists and scientists who have learnt business) who are likely to be able to attract capital and use it wisely so that internationally competitive businesses can be built.

Technically literate government officials (engineers and scientists who have learnt public policy) who can advise on key policies, e.g. deforestation, environmental standards etc., and who can create the policy conditions to attract and responsibly use potential foreign direct investment

Engineers with the skills and knowledge to spend public capital effectively to deliver the most useful infrastructure projects for a nation, and then to operate and maintain those assets. Improving value creation per hour worked also requires a technically literate workforce (to run modern technologies), but also technical capability to undertake investment projects. 

Engineering Economic Decision 

Role of Engineers in Business Process

Engineering economics is a topic that all industry-bound students should learn because of its real-world applications. There are a number of key topics, among many others, that are generally covered: time value of money, cost analysis, interest rates, economic fluctuations, and depreciation 

❖ Time value of money is the idea that money has a different value now than it will in the future.

 ❖ Cost analysis is a key tenant for balancing a business’s budget, as well as for calculating the viability of a project. 

❖ Interest is another concept that is important to economical engineers. Many times, engineering firms take out significant loans to finance construction of major projects. 

❖ Economic fluctuations characterize the changes in the market economy as peaks, recessions, troughs, or expansions. 

❖ Depreciation is the loss of value in an asset over time

Subject Matter of Economics

Micro Economics 

❖Consumer Behavior's 

❖Producer Behavior's 

❖Cost and Revenue

 ❖Market Structure 

❖Distribution

Macro Economics 

❖National Income- GDP
 ❖Money Supply & Inflation 
❖Growth and Development

 ❖International Economics 

Economics and Engineers

Engineering and Technology role in an Economy 

Seven Principles of Engineering Economy

The foundation of the discipline of Engineering Economy can be seen in terms of seven principles These seven principles are:

 1.Make a List of Alternates: Plan A, Plan B, etc.

 2.What Is Different among the Alternates?

 3.Be Clear on What You Want.

 4.Develop Common Performance Measures.

 5.Meet ALL Relevant Criteria. 

6.Weigh the Risk Against the Projected Rewards. 

7.Check the Results of Action Plan and Revise Plan If/When Necessary

Conclusions 

The marriage between economics and engineering is one that is crucial to the success of engineers in the 21st century; the interdisciplinary nature of the topic offers key insight into the underlying mechanisms that drive daily business operations.

Understanding the Basic Concept of International Economics

Internationals Economics deal with the economic interaction among the nation including exchange of goods and services. 

The study of international economics has never been as important as it is now. At the beginning of the 21st century, nations are more closely linked through trade in goods and services, through flows of money, and through investment in each others’ economies than ever before

Introduction 

“International economics is that branch of Economic Science  which studies the causes & consequences of economic interactions between the nations.” 

“International economic studies how economic interactions leads to inter-country & intra-country allocations of the scarce resources aimed at increasing the economic well-being of their people.”

Subject Matter of International Economics

   The subject matter of international economics consists of  the issues raised by the special problems of economic and financial interaction among sovereign nations. It analyzes the flow of goods, services, payments, and monies between a nation and the rest of the world, the policies directed at regulating these flows, and their effect on the nation’s welfare.
             International Economics divided into microeconomics and macroeconomics

   International trade theory and policies are the microeconomic aspects of international economics because they deal with individual nations treated as single units and with the relative price of individual commodities. 

   On the other hand, since the balance of payments deals with total receipts and payments, as well as with adjustment and other economic policies that affect the level of national income and the general price of the nation as a whole, they represent the macroeconomic aspects of international economics.

Importance of International Economics

         Many products we use, or parts of them, were in fact produced abroad. To travel abroad, we need to exchange our currency for the designated countries currencies. Problems like legal and illegal migration, operation of multinational corporations, the risk of complete economic collapse and deep poverty in the poorest countries of the world. Knowledge of international economics is necessary to understand what goes on in the world of today and to be informed consumers, citizens and voters. On a more practical level, the study of international economics is required for numerous jobs in multinational corporations, international banking, government agencies like the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund.

Theories of International Trade

Different factor endowments mean some countries can produce goods and services more efficiently than others – specialization is therefore possible:

Absolute Advantage:

Adam Smith Propounded the theory in which one country can produce goods with fewer resources than another.

Comparative Advantage:

Where one country can produce goods at a lower opportunity cost – it sacrifices less resources in production. Developed by David Ricardo in the early nineteenth century to provide intellectual support for the abolition of Corn Laws in Great Britain – that is, to promote the benefits of free trade (in grain) – the principle of comparative advantage remains one of the enduring insights of economic Theory. 

The example uses two countries, Portugal and England, and the production and trade of two products, namely wine and cloth. It is used  to show the mutual gains from trade (and specialization) which arise  even when one of the countries is more efficient in the production of both goods. 

Advantages of the Ricardo model

It is a particularly clear account of the principle of comparative advantage and how trade and specialization according to comparative advantage will generate mutual gains from trade.

 It offers a demonstration that a regime of free trade will actually generate a trade and specialization pattern in accordance with comparative advantage.

 It provides an understanding of the roles of wages and productivity in international competitiveness 

It gives an introduction to a methodology which is used in the development of many other propositions in trade theory 

It is a working example of a simple general equilibrium model.

The Heckscher–Ohlin model

The Heckscher–Ohlin (HO) model of international trade was originally developed by two Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin in the early part of the twentieth century. Like the Ricardian model, it is a comparative advantage model of international trade where differences between countries are the basis for trade.

The Stolper–Samuelson (SS) theorem

The Stolper–Samuelson theorem states that if both goods continue to be produced (incomplete specialization), an increase in the relative price of a good will increase the real return of the factor used intensively in the production of that good and a decrease in the real return to the other factor of production.

Empirical Result

The result appeared to contradict the intuition that the US was a capital-abundant country relative to the rest of the world and quickly became known as the Leontief paradox.

Trade Policies

• Instruments
• Free Trade vs Protectionism
• Economic Integration

 Balance of Payments

The record of a country's transactions with the rest of the world is called the balance of payments.

• Trade in goods
• Trade in services
• Income flows 

                      = Current Account

• Transfer of funds and sale of assets and liabilities

            = Capital Account

Exchange Rates

An exchange rate is the price of one country's currency in terms of another country's  currency. Exchange rates play a role in spending decisions because they enable us to translate different countries' prices into comparable terms.

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Impact of Farmer Producer Organization- A Case Study of FPO in Bihar

 

Indian agriculture severely faced problem due to this lockdown by hampering on supply chain, production, harvesting etc. Farmers from small and marginal land holding face various challenges in having access to inputs and marketing facilities. In the last several years Government of India has encouraged farmer producer organizations (FPOs) to help small and medium farmers. There are number of study have been conducted on impact of FPOs on farmers income and their standard of living. This paper tried to capture insights of FPOs operating in Bihar and its challenges. Paper also suggested some measures to improve the condition of FPOs.

Farmer Producer Company is considered to be the best way to help, organize and formalize Indian farmers. In this process farmers set up businesses and collaborate with related farmers using shared resources. 

Agriculture in India

Nearly 67 percent of the people in India depend on agriculture 

Agriculture is backbone of Indian economy 

Gross Value Added by agriculture, forestry and fishing is estimated at Rs 18.55 lakh crore

significant Contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) about 13 % (decreased from more than 50% of GDP in the 1950s to 13.4% in 2020-21) 

Farmer Producer Organization (FPO)

It is formed by a group of farmers through agriculture and allied activities.

FPOs is a registered body and a legal entity. It can be registered under the Cooperative Societies Act / Company act / Society Registration act

Producers are shareholders in the organization.

The minimum number of farmers needed to build an FPO in the plain land is 300, and in the hilly areas it will be 100 and there no any restriction on maximum number of members.

It deals with business activities related to the agriculture production and marketing of farm product.

Mainly FPOs  works for the benefit of member farmers.

Part of the profits were shared among member farmers.

The remainder is added to the business funds with the owners of the expansion.

Consolidation of agro producers, especially small and marginal farmers, into producer organizations

Most appropriate institutional form to mobilize farmers and build their capacity to collectively leverage their production and marketing strength by Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India

Utilize combined resources to work in cooperation with related farmers

Literature

Garg, studied the performance of a Farmer Producer Company, in Madhya Pradesh using 21 different financial ratios, he found that the company was only performing satisfactorily in case of liquidity

Chauhan, studied 18 FPOs in Madhya Pradesh, financial performance of the companies was found below the desired standards, decisions in the companies are taken by other professionals as the role of BOD member is very low, due to the fact that they are illiterate and unaware of various business regularities

Singh & Singh (2013) studied the performance of 25 Farmer Producer Companies from the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan, Apart from the financial performance, the study found that there were very few genuine FPCs operating; other FPCs are owned and controlled by professionals and businessmen who are not producers

Current Status of FPOs in Bihar

Discussion 

Social and Economic factors play important role in to improve any institutional performance. There is various critical influence on performance and development. Therefore, Social and economic factors such as age, gender, education, land holding, occupations and experience in agriculture are played importantly in determining the impact of FPOs.

Majority of the farmers ere men (86%) and (14%) women. It shows that women participation in agriculture activity is much less than men. Although there are large number of women agriculture labor is working in agriculture land.  Age group wise approximately (44%) were in 46- to 45-year-old. However about 30 % in in age groups of between 36- to 45-year-old and only 6% is above 55-year-old and about 20% account below 35 year of age group farmers. Similarly educational level of farmer is very low. Mostly are illiterate which account about 46% and only 10% are graduate level passed farmers rest are higher secondary level passed. This shows that farmers not able to produce more by using agri-knowledge and gain profit.

 Most of the farmers ere small and medium-sized farmers 50% farmers have between 1-to-2-hectare land holding and about 26 % farmers having less than 1 hectare land to cultivate agriculture produce. Only 6% farmers holding more than 4-hectare land. 0.39-hectare land is average holding in Bihar which much less than national average. It found  that more than 50 % of farmers have agriculture as primary occupation and about 26% farmers indulge in agriculture with allied activity like fishing, dairy and cattle. Only 16% farmers carrying other business along with agriculture activity. Even after FPO formed annual income of farmers are very low which is about 80% farmers have less than 2 lac annual income and about 13% farmers have 2 to 4 lac annual income and only 3% farmers have more than 4 lac annual income.

Organizational Structure of FPOs

Challenges for FPO In Bihar

• Technical Skills
• Inadequate Professional Management
• Weak Financial Structure
• Inadequate Access to Credit
• Inadequate Access to Market and Infrastructure

Policy Suggestions for FPO In Bihar

• FPOs can improve their financial performance by managing their operating finances, better debt management and increasing their sales.
• FPOs should use their well-defined resources to maximize their profits and should increase their market share to increase their efficiency
• Appropriate management and technical training skills can be provided by Govt., Resource Centers, and Agricultural Universities to raise awareness among farmers about the benefits of FPOs.
• FPOs can improve points of product integration, farm technology transfer, input supply and credit to raise better prices and market competition.
• Appropriate provision in the Indian Government's grain procurement policy requiring the purchase of agricultural products directly by FPOs under the MSP program.
• The Ministers / Departments concerned may be authorized to implement all “Farmer Programs” through FPOs in order to provide efficient services and improved outcomes.
• The process of issuing the various licenses required to conduct business operations by FPOs, may be simplified to make it a single national license

Conclusions 

There are number of small and marginal farmers are increasing in the country.

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in her last budget speech hoped that 10,000 new Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) would be formed in the next five years.

It deals with Agri business activities related to the Agri products and it works for the benefit of the member of FPOs.

Only establishing the FPOs will not work, as it requires a conducive Agri business environment to operate.

Domestic policies and laws also needed to be addressed for growing the FPOs.

Raising credit is a huge issue for FPOs as three year balance sheet is needed to get Credit from formal Financial Organizations like Banks.

Bringing in private investment would help in building better organizational capabilities. 

Success of FPO also depends on other factors such as Banks, Retailers and Corporate sector.